Byronic Hero Essay :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Typical heroes are perfect, they do everything right. However they are unrelateable because of it in the Romantic Era. Byron created a new kind of hero the Byronic Hero, in the movie First Blood, John Rambo is the perfect example of a Byronic Hero. In this movie John Rambo is rebellious, dark natured, hyper-sensitive, and passionate. He is willing to do whatever it takes for his cause.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  John Rambo is an ex-Green Beret, a peacetime misfit haunted by memories of Vietnam. He has no family and no one helped out of his plantation. He was tortured in Vietnam by enemies. He is dark natured through the whole movie. He has no friends; the only person he has left is his Colonel.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As Rambo passes through a small town in western Canada an over-zealous sheriff stops him and gives him a hard time. As the cops clean him up at the station he is reminded of how he was tortured in Vietnam. He goes crazy and beats the crap out of five cops and runs off into the mountains. This slows characteristics of the Byronic Hero.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  John Rambo may seem like and evil villain but he is not, just confused and very hard to understand. Rambo is very hyper-sensitive and emotional through the whole movie. Getting upset about his past and having very emotional flash-backs of Vietnam. He has a passion for what he thinks is right. At the end of the movie Rambo gets very emotional talking about his friends at war and how they died and how he drove million dollar machines in the military and in the real world he couldn’t even hold down a job at the car wash. So as he talks about this he is crying and holding his colonels arm. You understand after that part in the movie that he is a Byronic Hero.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In a way you feel sorry for Rambo in the end of the movie because of the way he is, but it is not his fault.

Aboriginal Inequality

Social Inequality with Canadian Aboriginals SOC 300 Dr. Kelly Train Milica Rados 500460778 Different ethnic backgrounds immigrate to Canada making it a very multicultural society. Immigrants coming to Canada have made it progress to a more multicultural society, making other nations believe that this is the case, however this does not include native societies that have been living in Canada for the longest period of time. The purpose of this paper is to analyze how Aboriginals live in Canada.This paper argues that aboriginals in Canada are not treated with the same equality as non-aboriginals livening in Canada, even though Canada is known as a multicultural society. By studying the history of Aboriginal settlement in Canada and understanding their connection to the land there is a better understanding of why taking over their land is a social issue. By taking over their land their sense of connection to nature was taken away which was a big part of the Aboriginal culture. This cause d educational inequality and also the inequality they face within their workplace and the wages they receive.By studying history, their culture, education and their current economic state it becomes more clear why this is a social issue in Canada and how that takes away from the multiculturalism Canada is known for. Aboriginals, which include first nations people, were the first people of Canada however, the treatment they receive today shows otherwise. Aboriginal treaties, Westphalia Treaty of 1648, that were established in Canada in the mid-seventeenth century were used to â€Å"harmonize discovery and conquest principles† (Frideres, 2000).The land that Aboriginals occupied was more than just land to them, they felt a connection with Mother Nature and they established roles in their families that helped them create a working community. Without even trying to understand how Aboriginals felt about their treaties and their land the British Common Law abolished Aboriginal land and tenure (Frideres, 2000). The British came into Canada stronger, with weapons and technology that the Aboriginals did not know about or ever see and when they took over their land they had nothing they could do or say about it.The Aboriginal had no choice but to cooperate and let the land that they felt strong connections to be taken over. Losing a sense of connection to the land and having to watch one of the most important parts of their community being taken over cause further problems for the Aboriginal people. Due to the problems faced with settlement of British into Canada, Aboriginals have not had the same independence they had when they were living in Canada alone, they don’t receive the same equality or freedom.According to symbolic internationalists the identity of a person cannot be determined without understanding the historical context of what the individual is born into. â€Å"Socialization theory† argues that individuals are born into groups and learn their culture and what they learn goes on to the next generations (Frideres, 2008). If a person born into Aboriginal social groups, their understanding of who they are comes from the group they are born into. Their parents teach them about the land and help them develop the same connection to nature that they feel.Aboriginal identity emerges from Aboriginal groups that are shaped by their sense of location (Frideres, 2008). Aboriginals have a strong connection to their land and nature around them and that is what they teach the next generation as stated before. Aboriginal people are the original occupants of the territory known as Canada and as such possess a special relationship to this space (Mills, 2006), and even though this is the case it does not mean that Aboriginals need to own all of Canada and all the land should be considered there.However, the land that they did occupy and did have should be left as is because their connection to the land is important to them. But that is not the case. Aboriginal people are an ethnicity abstracted from their distinct history and relationship to the land and to newcomers (Mills, 2006). They no longer get to own their land but at the same time they have to watch their land being taken over. Over time this sense of group, or community disappears. Generations can no longer teach younger generations about the importance of nature and therefore the history is slowly lost.Since they lost their history and their connection to the land a lot of other parts of their culture and their beliefs was taken away as well. The main issue faced was losing a sense of their culture. Canada being a multicultural society, allows for all people to practice their culture and they have the freedom to believe what they want. The aboriginals lost that right when their land was taken over. It was lost because they no longer owned their nature and it was taken over by technology and architecture, making them less united with the forest and the land that they lived in.By taking over the land they were also forced to have to change their education. In schools they were no longer allowed to learn Aboriginal culture. In 2002 by studying Canadian schools it was said that as many as 30 percent of elementary students and 40 percent of high school students did not speak even a little of their Native tongues (Schissel, 2002). The reason that this is the case can be because Aboriginal families stopped practicing their culture and heritage at home therefore distancing the children from understanding where they came from.That is not because they no longer wanted their kids to know the traditions or history of their ancestry, but it was simply because they lost the connection they had. After being forced to stop practicing aboriginal culture when the British settlement fist happened, they had to learn a new culture and therefore it was slowly lost sine it was forbidden. Therefore the main reason that such high numbers of Aboriginal s tudents do not speak their native language is because the educational system in Canada fails to recognize and incorporate indigenous knowledge (Schissel, 2002).Since it would be hard to incorporate all cultures existing in Canada it is acceptable that the language is not practiced in schools. However aboriginals play such an important role in Canadian history their culture should be incorporated in the schools more, especially in history classes involving in Canada. Some may argue that other cultures are not incorporated into the mainstream school system, but aboriginals are the main settlers of Canada and therefore they should be recognized and taught about. Others argue that there are alternative schools that will study traditional cultures.However according to Schisel (2002) this achievement of education would be laughable and would not be considered for a higher level of education such as continuing to university. Therefore they are forced to study the mainstream system if they wish to have a future in the Canada employment wise. Not only did the Aboriginals sacrifice their language and culture, they often also encounter the additional hindrances of racism, prejudice, poverty, violence, and underemployment (Schissel, 2002) Underemployment that Aboriginals face is a serious social issue in Canada.The reason that this can be seen as a serious social issue is because Aboriginal peoples were titled as one of the four economically disadvantaged target groups in Canada in the Employment Equity Act 1995 (Maxim, 2001). This means that the Aboriginals cause overall views of Canada to go down. They can affect the overall economy in Canada because this means they suffer from poverty and unemployment bringing Canada down as a nation. The creation of the Indian in 1985 did not do any help with creating Aboriginals as equals and this party is suffering to this day.Act Registered Aboriginal people in Canada are more likely than any other culture in Canada to be unemploye d. They also have a lower education achievement and are considered more likely to be unemployed than anyone else in Canada (White, 2003). It is not just registered aboriginals that are suffering economically it is also the non-registered aboriginals as well. Overall all Aboriginal Canadians are disadvantaged when compared with the non-Aboriginal Canadian population. The amount of disadvantage, is measured by the characteristics of income we are examining, differs for the different categories of Aboriginal peoples (Maxim, 2001).The earnings of Aboriginal people is 10. 4 percent lower than non-aboriginal people in Canada (Maxim, 2001). Thinking about all the different cultures in Canada that number is high compared to the rest of the Canadian citizens. Aboriginal people, mainly concerning women are employed in low paying jobs and also are in less stable jobs (Mills, 2006). There are two main reasons that this is the case according the Mills (2006). The first reason he gives us is that Canadians limit the number of jobs offered for aboriginals.They limit the jobs that they are giving to women for example, therefore resulting in lower paid jobs. The second reason according to Mills (2006) is by putting Canadians in less desirable jobs. This causes a disadvantage for them and it creates segregation. Therefore by limiting their jobs to less desirable jobs they are being treated with inequality and suffer from segregation. The employment rates and unemployment rates suggest that Aboriginals in Canada are way more disadvantage and therefore signifying that Canada is not as multicultural as we believe it to be.In conclusion, it is apparent that Aboriginals are facing sociologically related problems living in Canada. Canada portrays itself as a multicultural society and even though the acceptance of immigrants has progressed a high amount in the years, what is ignored is the aboriginal societies that first settled in Canada. Being the first nations people of Canada the recognition they receive should be much higher. Their history should be brought into schools and the be taught to not only Aboriginals but also other Canadian students because it is an important part of Canadian history.The language should not have been eliminated in the past and just like other cultures they should have received the same treatment being allowed to own their own land, and study their culture. If Aboriginal history was to be taught would create a better sense of acceptance for Aboriginal people and it would help them not forget their culture and their connection to the land. Not only should the history of Aboriginals be taught more, but their acceptance in the work place should be improved.The amount of jobs offered should be higher and the wages they receive should reflect the wages of the rest of Canadians. This would cause Canada to progress into the multicultural society they strive to be. This would cause other cultures to feel more of an acceptance and statisti c wise Canada would progress as well. Based on the history of Aboriginals, their culture, the mainstream school system and employment rates; aboriginals are suffering from inequality and it does impact Canada as a society. References Frideres, James S. 2000.Aboriginal Tenure in the Constitution of Canada. Canadian Ethnic Studies. 32. 2:140. Frideres, James S. 2008. Aboriginal Identity in the Canadian Context. The Canadian Journal of Narrative Studies. 28. 2:313-342 Maxim P, White P, Beavon D, Whitehead P. 2001. Dispersion and polarization of income among Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal Canadians. The Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology. 38. 4:465-476. Mills, Suzanne E. 2006. Segregation of Women and Aboriginal People Within Canada’s Forest Sector by Industry and Occupation.The Canadian Journal of Narrative Studies. 26. 1:147-171. Schissel B, Wotherspoon T, Friesen J. 2002. The legacy of school for Aboriginal people: education, oppression, and emancipation. Canadian Et hnic Studies. 34. 2:129-131 Vivian J. 2006. With Good Intentions: Euro-Canadian and Aboriginal Relations in Colonial Canada. Canadian Ethnic Studies. 38. 2:181-183 White J, Maxim P, Gyimah S. 2003. Labour Force Activity of Women in Canada: A Comparative Analysis of Aboriginal and Non-Aboriginal Women. The Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology. 40. 4:391-415.

Pyramids And Cathedrals Finding Similarities - 951 Words

Pyramids and Cathedrals – Finding Similarities in Differences A large pile of ancient stone is no different than a giant stack of old stone, right? To look closely into an argument, sometimes a zoomed-out perspective is needed. In this case, its important to look at every detail to find out if the construction of pyramids and cathedrals were similar or different. On one hand, there are the ancient Egyptian pyramids, construced under the authority of the pharoahs through the use of many laboring workers. On the other, there are gothic cathedrals, built over a long period of time, employing several construction methods. Through the analysis of historical accounts and evidence, it is apparent that the similarities between the Great Pyramids and gothic cathedrals greatly endorse the use of techonological systems as fuel for societies that are constantly improving. Before determining an overall similarity or difference, a good foundation needs to be established. Techonological syst ems must be understood in order to comprehend the techniques used to build a pyramid or cathedral. By definition, a technological system is a series of processes that function as a way to minimize redundancy and maximize efficiency. They are of dire need to a constantly changing society. Observing the main aspects of some of the technological systems used in ancient and medieval times will be crucial to reach a conclusion. While the Great Pyramids have been around for a long time, the time period inShow MoreRelatedan analysis of my cultural experience1698 Words   |  7 Pagesnation. Mexican art and Mexican murals, commonly noticed when tourists visit cities located mostly in the southern part of Mexico. Architecture, greatly treasured by most Mexicans is full of variety, pyramids, cathedrals and governments buildings are commonly seen in some parts of Mexico. Many pyramids located in the southern part of the country were amazingly built by the indigenous many centuries ago. These structures are admired by millions of people who visit them every year. Mexican cuisine, aRead MoreSMSC12647 Words   |  51 Pageslife is based fostering a sense of community with common, inclusive values promoting racial, religious and other forms of equality encouraging pupils to work co-operatively encouraging pupils to recognise and respect social differences and similarities providing positive corporate experiences – through assemblies, team activities, residential experiences and school productions helping pupils resolve tensions between their own aspirations and those of the group or wider society providing opportunitiesRead MoreManagement Course: Mba−10 General Management215330 Words   |  862 Pagesorganization has become a central issue in management thought. 18 Jones−George: Contemporary Management, Fourth Edition I. Management 2. The Evolution of Management Thought  © The McGraw−Hill Companies, 2005 A Manager’s Challenge Finding Better Ways to Make Cars A Manager’s Challenge What is the best way to use people’s skills? Car production has changed dramatically over the years as managers have applied different principles of management to organize and control work activitiesRead MoreExploring Corporate Strategy - Case164366 Words   |  658 Pagesopportunity, they did present the industry with important choices in the area of corporate social responsibility. Innovation The ethical pharmaceutical companies’ key contribution to medical progress is the ability to turn fundamental research ï ¬ ndings into innovative treatments that are widely available and accessible. Companies with consistently high levels of RD spending and productivity became industry leaders. For this reason, stock market valuations place as much importance on the RD ‘pipeline’

Suicide Is An Act That Knows No Boundaries - 1826 Words

INTRODUCTION Many people consider suicide a taboo subject best left in the shadows. A dark subject not often understood, and more times than not, occurring with no logical reason for the â€Å"why† a person would be willing to intentionally take their own life. Suicide is an act that knows no boundaries. Regardless of whether an individual is young, old, male, female, black, white, rich or poor, suicide has a way of finding itself into many families’ lives. When suicide is the cause of death, many families suffer difficulty finding closure, because they most likely will never know the reason their loved one decided to succumb to their own inner demons. The people left behind may spend the remainder of their lives wondering if there was anything they could have done to have prevented such a tragic loss of life. According to the U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, â€Å"For every American who dies by suicide, many others attempt suicide, and many more suffer t he despair that leads them to consider taking their own life.† This tragedy is even more overwhelming when the victim is a child. Sadly, according to a 2015 Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report by Erin Sullivan, et al. from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, suicide is the second leading cause of death in the United States of teens/adolescents between the ages of 10 to 24, only exceeded by accidents (unintentional injuries). Adolescent suicide is a very important and serious issue that needs to beShow MoreRelatedKate Chopin s The Awakening Essay1617 Words   |  7 Pageswomen should not follow the cultural boundaries set for them and to â€Å"batter against those boundaries† instead. However, the novel has also managed to be an â€Å"enforcement of cultural boundaries† by showing the consequence of when they are challenge. Readers of its time would find The Awakening as a breakthrough of the cultural constraints women faced in 19th century Louisia na whereas modern readers would be shocked by how enforced these seemingly oppressive boundaries are. The Awakening shows these twoRead MoreIn Housekeeping by Marilynne Robinso, Categorical Confines: Societal Boundaries in Opposition of Happiness1178 Words   |  5 Pagesmother’s transient sister, Sylvie. While Ruth is generally passively accepting of the care or lack thereof that she receives from these women, no matter how unconventional, Lucille purposefully sets herself against Sylvie. After existing outside of the boundaries that society imposes for the majority of her adult life, Sylvie is unable to provide the structured normality to which Lucille so desperately cleaves. In their own methods of seeking happiness, Sylvie prefers a fluid way of housekeeping, while LucilleRead MoreLimits Of Freedom Of Speech1210 Words   |  5 Pagesthe rule it says there should not be any obstacles. And why should we set limitations or boundaries in an amendment? Boundaries have to be set on the amendment because of those who can be hurt or can be offended. Offensive speech can come from everywhere, so either we can accept the crude song lyrics, racist remarks, and let people yell bomb in a busy and heavily populated airport. Or set laws and boundaries on what people are saying and where they say it. There should be limits on freedom of speechRead MoreA Brief Note On Suicide And Social Imagination1372 Words   |  6 PagesMid Term Essay #1: Suicide and Social Imagination â€Å"Suicide is applied to all cases of death resulting directly or indirectly from a positive or negative act of the victim himself, which he knows will produce this result† (Durkheim 34). Suicide is a phenomenon that has plagued our world since the beginning of time. It currently accounts for the second leading cause of death in people ages ten to twenty-four years old (Garni Powerpoint). This means of ending your own life is something we can preventRead MorePros and Cons on Assisted Suicide - Essay1221 Words   |  5 PagesKeri Starkel Pros and cons on assisted suicide Pages 5 What happens to a person when they get so depressed that they are on the verge of suicide? Well the only answer would be to commit it but what if that person cant find the guts to go through it alone. Well then they ask for assistance. This is called assisted suicide. Assisted suicide or in other words euthanasia is the killing by an act of an independent human being for their own benefit. There are many kinds of definitions that one mustRead MoreEssay about Euthanasia Should be Allowed1214 Words   |  5 Pages What happens to a person when they get so depressed that they are on the verge of suicide? 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The Emperor Of All Maladies Essay - 1419 Words

The Emperor of All Maladies (A biography of cancer), written by Siddhartha Mukherjee Introduction â€Å"The Emperor of All Maladies† captured the whole essence of cancer. This book gave a very good narrative of the historical record of cancer, the scientists and important public figures who contributed to the fight against a disease that has so much caused despair, pain, disfiguring of the body and worst of all, death. Cancer is seen as the abnormal growth of cells. A normal cell becomes cancerous when there is a defect in the regulation of its growth. Cancerous cells also tend to be elusive and resistant to treatments. Numerous attempts have been channeled into demystifying the nature of cancer. Some of these attempts proved abortive while a few served as a harbinger of hope. Cancer have proved to be part of our genetic makeup, hence, total eradication of it remains a future accomplishment. The aim of this review is to give an account of the second leading cause of death in the United States of America. The review described the origin of cancer, its nature, prevention strategies and treatment. It also evaluated the concept used by the author. Summary The word â€Å"cancer† first appeared in medical literature in 400BC during the time of Hippocrates as â€Å"karkinos†. Cancer was compared to a crab, which was denoted by its hardened back, its painful sting and its mobility. Another Greek word described cancer as â€Å"onkos† which represented the load born by cancer patients which isShow MoreRelatedEmperor of all maladies Essay8098 Words   |  33 PagesPraise for The Emperor of All Maladies â€Å"A compulsively readable, surprisingly uplifting, and vivid tale. thrilling .† —o, t he oprah maga z in e â€Å"[An] essential piece of medical journalism.† —T im e â€Å"A meticulously researched, panoramic history . . . What makes Mukherjee’s narrative so remarkable is that he imbues decades of painstaking laboratory investigation with the suspense of a mystery novel and urgency of a thriller.† —The Boston Globe â€Å"riveting and powerful .† —San FrRead MoreCancer : The Emperor Of All Maladies1338 Words   |  6 Pagesâ€Å"Cancer: the Emperor of all Maladies† tells the story of humanity’s struggle to eradicate cancer, as well as the leaps and bounds we have taken in understanding the nature of the disease. Sadly the War on Cancer declared by Richard Nixon in 1971 is still ongoing, and although many new technologies, medicines and techniques have been introduced, there are still instances where we are wholly defenseless in our fight against an ancient illness. Cancer is not a foreign infectious disease, nor is thereRead MoreThe Roman Spectacle Of Ancient Society891 Words   |  4 Pagesthe Circus served as a welcomed diversion. 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Molecular Archaeology Free Essays

string(79) " minimum state of preservation to obtain the specific sequence information†\." Different methods have been used and are being used in the analysis of archaeological data. Among others, different archaeometric fields such as paleoecology (paleozoology, paleobotany and pllenanalysis), dating methods (radiocarbon-dating and dendrochronology) and analytical chemistry had been used for the evaluation of the quantity and quality of different archaeological substances (Kiesslich, n.d. We will write a custom essay sample on Molecular Archaeology or any similar topic only for you Order Now ). Given the nature of archaeology, evaluated data are analyzed on the point of view of history. The recent discoveries in science particularly in genetics and molecular biology have given rise to another method of scientific analysis of archaeological data. The new developments allow easier investigation of ancient remains not only through paleoecology, dating and chemical methods but on a molecular level. This new branch of archaeological analysis is what is now known as Molecular Archaeology. Christianson (2007) of the Minnesota State University gives a more perspicuous description of the field. According to him, Molecular Archaeology is an â€Å"†¦emergent field in archaeology that has been brought about by the advancements of the recognition and understanding of DNA, focusing on the acquisition of either DNA or mtDNA (mitochondrial DNA) and being able to determine species of natural archaeological finds as well as determine blood lines and/or sex of animal or human remains.† It is this use of the DNA in the analysis of archaeological data that differentiates Molecular Archaeology from the other methods of archaeological analysis. It is the biological function of this DNA that makes molecular archaeology an irreplaceable field in analytical archaeology. This DNA contains genetic information which, once known, could provide special information about the individual properties of the probe (Christianson, 2007). These individual properties include one’s species, population, and gender. Also, Through the use of DNA residues, accuracy in reconstructing subsistence and related cultural activities is more probably. As a result, we gain more knowledge and understanding of the lives of our ancestors and the environment they lived in as well as of the other creatures that coexisted with them (Christianson, 2007). There was a time when molecular archaeology seemed to be inconceivable. This was when scientists believed that DNA-preservation was impossible in biological remains. Previous studies have shown that it only took days or even hours for degradation to occur after the death of an individual. With degradation, of course, is the loss of significant genetic information (Keisslich, n.d.). It is one study in the early eighties defied this scientists’ limiting belief on the relationship between degradation and DNA-preservation and paved the way for molecular archaeology and the use of DNA in the analysis of archaeological data. â€Å"This is the successful detection of intact genetic information in a 4000-year-old Egyptian mummy† (Kiesslich, n.d.) Furthermore, the invention of analytical methods in molecular biology boosted the field of molecular archaeology. â€Å"In 1988, Mullis and Saiki published a study on Primer-directed enzymatic amplification of DNA with a thermostable DNA polymerase†. Practically, they invented the PCR or the Polymerase Chain Reaction technique which made possible the detection and characterization of even minimal traces of DNA. In theory, the presence of even a single intact molecule of DNA can give a positive result (Kiesslich, n.d.) †The impact of molecular archaeology particularly its use of DNA in evaluating data has been proven to be a great leap in archaeological research†. Because DNA is a huge aspect of molecular archaeology, it is necessary even for the general studies of this subject to include information on the nature of the DNA. DNA is a helically-twisted macromolecule consisting of a sugar-phosphate backbone. â€Å"Each sugar in the DNA’s sugar-phosphate backbone is bound to one side-chain which may be different for each unit†. It is this side-chain that represents a single basic unit of DNA or DNA-base. It is the connection between a few to several billions of base-pairs connected by one polymer unit that produces a double helix, particular to the DNA. (Kiesslich, n.d.) The function of the DNA is mainly the maintenance and passing of genetic information from parent to progeny. This genetic information is encoded in 4 different letters (A, C, G, T) which represent the bases or the basic units. Three of the letters together correspond to the next superior information unit (Kiesslich, n.d.) The DNA not only functions for the maintenance and passing of genetic information but also for the control of the biological functions of each cell. For living organisms, it is located in the nucleus of the cells and in small cellular compartments called mitochondria. This mitochondria are considered as the powerhouses of the cell because it provide for the energy needed for cellular processes. Like nuclear DNA, mitochondrial DNA has their own chromosomes. â€Å"In general, a cell contains only two copies of nuclear DNA and as much as a thousand copies of mitochondrial DNA â€Å"(Kiesslich, n.d.). What is crucial to the nature of the DNA is the sequence of its 4 discriminable bases or the base-sequence. It is this base-sequence that represents the genetic information passed on from parent to progeny and controls the cellular chemical reactions. It is this sequence that is the targeted information in the analysis of archaeological facts and this sequence can only be determined through the application of methods in molecular biology (Kiesslich, n.d.). Information given by an individual’s DNA is not limited to the individual but also to pathogens which include microorganisms and bacteria, as well as biological materials and the diet of a settlement (Kiesslich, n.d.). DNA of microorganisms and bacteria can be determined through paleopathology and paleoepidemiology. DNA of biological material can be determined through paleoecology, paleobotany and paleozoology. An extracted intact DNA would give the whole genetic information of an individual. This genetic information can be accessed using different sequence-specific DNA probes which also provide information required for archaeological analysis (Kiesslich, n.d.) There is a difference between the extraction of DNA from the nucleus and DNA from the mitochondria. Note that DNA from the nucleus persists only as two copies for every cell while mitochondrial DNA persists at an average of a few thousand copies per cell. â€Å"Nuclear DNA and mitochondrial DNA require a minimum state of preservation to obtain the specific sequence information†. You read "Molecular Archaeology" in category "Essay examples" The greater quantity of mitochondrial DNA allows it to be more readily accessible compared to nuclear DNA. It is also more resistant to degradation processes after death as well as diaganetic influences compared to nuclear DNA (Kiesslich, n.d.). The two types of DNA are different in the types of information that can be obtained. In nuclear DNA, information about an individual’s genetic constitution can be obtained. This includes the individual’s species, gender, fingerprint and kinship with other individuals. Meanwhile, the mitochondrial DNA provides information that allows the assessment of maternal lineage within a community. This is because mitochondrial DNA is exclusively maternally hereditary. The mitorchondrial DNA’s comparatively slow mutational rate also allows greater evaluation of genetic context for individuals. In effect, individuals can be classified through middle and long-range temporal classification (Kiesslich, n.d.). Using information on the X and Y chromosomes, gender can be determined easily using molecular biological methods (Faerman and Filon, 2005). As it is known, gender is one of the most significant features of an individual and is likewise significant in archaeological analysis. Among other parts, gender can be and is usually determined using the teeth and the bones (Kiesslich, n.d.). Sex-specific genes are located in the X and Y chromosomes. Still, the determination of gender is not limited to molecular biological means. The determination of the gender of an individual remains can be done through conventional methods including morphometry. This happens when convenience is not the issue but the quality of the sample itself when it is too damaged or when the remains that are analyzed belonged to an infant. As a rule, a few grams of bone or tooth is enough for DNA-analysis (Kiesslich, n.d.). †Gender determination through DNA-analysis can be exemplified by the study done in South Israel, at a bath house at a burial site of Roman Askalon†. It must be noted that in Ancient Askalon infanticide was a widespread phenomenon (The Advent of Molecular Archaeology, 2005). †Behind the bath house, archaeologists found more than 100 skeletal remains of infants which at first were thought as the remains of unwanted girls†. The epigraph stating â€Å"Enter, Enjoy and†¦Ã¢â‚¬  and the several lamps with erotic motifs gave rise to a theory which was confirmed using DNA-analysis. Through gender determination by DNA-analysis, it was found out that the skeletal remains that were found did not only belong to unwanted girls but also to unwanted boys. The bath house was confirmed to be a brothel and the skeletal remains were the infants of the women who used to work at the place (Kiesslich, n.d.). Meanwhile, the issue on whether or not tuberculosis was brought to Peru by Columbus and his successors was clarified using DNA analysis. â€Å"One study reported that the DNA of tuberculosis pathogens already existed even among 600-900-year-old Peruvian mummies† (Kiesslich, n.d.). Nuclear DNA-analysis is also used in the identification of remains. In history, the remains of Josef Mengele in Brazil as well as the identification of the remains of the Romanov family in Jekatrinenburg after the Bolshevik Revolution were identified using DNA-fingerprinting (Kiesslich, n.d.). The analysis of organic residues in some jars found in Egyptian Amphorae allowed the discovery of what commodities were transported to Egypt during the Late Bronze Age and the links between the sources of the jars, the commodities and the way of transport of substances in the Mediterranean world (Stern, 2001). Mitochondrial DNA analysis was used in the investigation of the Tyrolean Ice-man (The Advent of Molecular Archaeology, 2005). The findings of the investigation revealed a high DNA-sequence homology to today’s population in the Northern alps (Kiesslich, n.d.) and showed a great fit to the Northern European context. In this case, clothes and tools associated with the findings were also investigated aside from the individual body, giving an idea on vegetation during the era (Kiesslich, n.d.). DNA-analysis also covers topics historical and anthropological topics particularly population-genetics. Population-genetics include the tracing of migrations and distributions of populations. For example, kinship analysis was done with some individuals in Forida (Kiesslich, n.d.). DNA-analysis can also be used to trace genealogical origins and also in the determination of possible threats of diseases from ancestors. Source materials for DNA-analysis are not limited to bones and teeth. As a matter of fact, anything that could possibly contain DNA, even if not part of the individual’s body can be a source material. â€Å"Source materials can range from biological remains such as skeletons, bodies, bones, hair, teeth, forensic and medical preparations, museum specimens, fossils and objects that an individual has come in contact with† (Kiesslich, n.d.). It must be remembered that DNA-analysis is a procedure which involves the destruction of the specimen. This implies that once a specimen has been used for analysis, it cannot be reused. On the other hand, even small amounts of materials, say, a piece of hair or a gram of bone is enough for any DNA-analysis as long as the specimen is of quality, depending on the source’s chemical, physical, geological, ecological and biological history (Kiesslich, n.d.). †A DNA can be expected to be intact and well-preserved if it has been maintained at low-temperatures such as the case of the Tyrolean Ice-man, or if it has been maintained in arid places†. As a rule, DNA-degradation happens under humid conditions so specimens coming from deserts, and in polar regions or any other setting with similar conditions would produce more intact DNA specimens and more successful DNA analysis. Other conserving factors include anaerobic conditions such as that in Florida during the kinship analysis and the quantity of possible DNA specimens such in mummies (Kiesslich, n.d.). The less a specimen is affected by diagenetic processes, the more intact and well-preserved it will be when used for DNA-analysis. This is the reason why teeth and bones are commonly used for DNA-analysis. Their structure, and rigidity as well as the little hollow spaces with single cells, which undergo individual post-mortem mummification (Kiesslich, n.d.). In addition, these specimens are less affected by natural contamination during the life of the individual as well as post-mortem contaminations. Contemporary contaminations in the specimens can also be easily removed before extracting the DNA. As noted earlier, teeth and bones are suitable material sources for the determination of gender and for any other DNA-analysis (Kiesslich, n.d.). In molecular archaeology as well as in any other field that require genetic analysis, collection of samples and pre-treatment require maximum precautions. This is to prevent contemporary errors which are possible sources of errors. Errors are especially crucial in DNA-analysis since specimens are not infinite (Kiesslich, n.d.). One simple precaution is to wear gloves and safety-masks. Also, tools and containers that will be used in the analysis should be sterile and free from other DNA contaminants. It must also be remembered that probing of specimens should be done directly at the excavation site, sealed and only opened until it get to the laboratory. All these should be obligatory to prevent contamination and thus, errors (Kiesslich, n.d.) There are many procedures for the extraction of DNA from material sources. Naturally, speciments are cleaned first to remove physical contaminants such as soil and dirt. Specimens are then homogenized and placed in an extraction buffer. This extraction buffer contains compounds that are necessary for the breaking of the source-matrix. The breaking of the source matrix is done by decalcification or and proteinase-digestion. The end product is the extracted solubilized DNA (Kiesslich, n.d.). Similar to extraction, isolation and purification are also done through different procedures. Before doing the process, the chemical and physical conditions of the source material must first be evaluated. This is another preventive procedure to minimize errors from contaminants. Once the DNA in the source material has been purified and contained in an aqueous solution, substances that are co-extracted with the DNA including humic acids and other chemicals which have similar properties with the DNA must be removed to avoid false negatives in PCR reactions. These co-extrants could also inhibit enzymatic reactions (Kiesslich, n.d.). The most powerful tool for the investigation of DNA is the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) because of its sensitivity which allows even a single intact DNA enough for detection. The PCR is an amplification procedure that is sequence specific. â€Å"Here, sequence specific DNA probes are added to reactions considering reaction parameters necessary for the process†. Through this, the target sequence is amplified until detectable amounts are obtained. However, further care must be done in order to avoid contamination, particularly contemporary ones. Contemporary contaminants are better preserved in the PCR. To manage this, blank extracts and zero-controls must be done for every extraction. In sum, controls are necessary to for the verification of the authenticity of the results and in order to trace possible contaminations that are present (Kiesslich, n.d.). Zero-controls are PCR-reactions which do not contain the DNA being analyzed (Kiesslich, n.d.). They are blank extracts which contain everything that is required for the reaction used in the DNA-analysis such as solutions and buffers. In the same way as the source material, these controls undergo the same extraction steps. Much has been transformed by the discovery of DNA. In the past, archaeological investigations may be limited to the physical level. Today, it has reached the era when Archaeology intersects with Molecular Biology. There are still lots of evidences to discover. history is still filled with gaps. With the advent of Molecular Archaeology, strands may just be made and gaps may just be filled. References Christianson, B. (2007). Molecular Archaeology. Minnesota State University. Retrieved 23 October 2007 from http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/archaeology/archaeology/moleculararchaeology.html. Faerman, M., D. Filon, et al. (1995). Sex identification of archaeological human remains based on amplification of the X and Y amelogenin alleles. Gene, 167, (1-2): 327-32. Kiesslich, J. (n.d.). The Emerging Field of Molecular Archaeology. Retrieved 23 October Saiki, R. K., D. H. Gelfand, et al. (1988). Primer-directed enzymatic amplification of DNA with a thermostable DNA polymerase. Science,   239, (4839): 487-91. Stern, B. (2001). Organic Residues in Egyptian Amphorae. University of Bradford. Retrieved 23 October 2007 from http://www.brad.ac.uk/acad/archsci/depart/resgrp/molarch/egypt.html. The Advent of Molecular Archaeology. (2005). Retrieved 23 October 2007 from http://humanitieslab.stanford.edu/2/184.    How to cite Molecular Archaeology, Essay examples

Theme for English B Essay Example For Students

Theme for English B Essay In the poem Theme for English B, by Langston Hughes, Hughes talks about the African American struggle for equality. This is a common subject for Hughes. In many of his poems he speaks about blacks and the injustices that they face. Another common subject for Hughes is the town, Harlem, which is also mentioned in Theme for English B.The poem starts off with an instructor giving his students a paper to write, the instructor says to the student, let that page come out of you-Then, it will be true. The poem is continued as the paper that Hughes is writing. In the paper, he explains everything in his heart, just as his instructor had told him to. His paper illustrates exactly how an African-American man feels, acts and what he does in everyday life. The point that Hughes tries to get across to his teacher is clear, that he, the black man, likes and does the same things as the white man. The difference being how the world views the two races. Hughes wonders if his paper will be graded diff erently because he is black. In the poem he says, I guess being colored doesnt make me not like the same things other folks like who are other races So will my page be colored that I write?Hughes was not asking for sympathy, or for an apology, just understanding. He knows that even that will be hard, considering that he and his professor come from two completely different worlds. He explains that a black man will always have an impact on a white mans life, and vice versa; but Hughes knows that the white man wants no part of the black mans life. Hughes only meager wish is to be accepted-not as a black man, but as an American.