Developmental Analysis Essay Example for Free

Developmental Analysis Essay Abstract The field of study that examines patterns of growth, change, and stability in behavior that occur throughout the entire lifespan is called lifespan development. Lifespan development takes a scientific approach in its study of growth, change, and stability. This development emphases on human development. Developmentalists study the course of development in nonhuman species, the most popular examine growth and change in people. In contrast I will focus on the ways people and myself change and grow during our lives, with the consideration of stability in our live span. Together, these findings suggest that we will go through different developments and stages from Infancy, through childhood and adolescence, and to marriage and parenthood. 11% of infants are born earlier than normal. Infants who are born prior to 38 weeks after conception is called preterm infants. When coming into this world I was born as a premature infant, I was born at 6 months due to my mother suffering from an illness called pneumonia. I was hospitalized for 4 months with tubes and monitors hooked up to me to help me eat, breathe and regain enough strength to go home to be with my family. Rupert (2006) discusses the prevention of premature birth, what you can do to prevent from having a premature baby. It is said that tension and stress can play a part and having a premature baby the less stress and tension on the body will prevent having a premature baby. Seeing a doctor regularly, taking prenatal pills, vitamins, eating healthy and making sure you have a good amount of rest can prevent premature birth as well. Being pregnant is a wonderful time for any women but it also require for you to be healthy as possible being pregnant can cause for you to go through a lot changing carrying a baby for nine months. Also, depending on your body you can go through more than other  women when becoming pregnant, if you didn’t go through anything with your first child sometimes you can have some minor problems with your second child that’s why it is important for you to take care of yourself when being pregnant. In my case I was my mother’s third child and coming down with an illness serious enough as pneumonia can be caused by stress and or from not taking care of yourself enough to remain healthy when pregnant. There are many factors on why prematurity will occur in women, rates of preterm births differ between racial groups, not because of race per se, but because members of racial minorities have disproportionately lower incomes and higher stress as a result Feldman (2014, p.95). Growing into the life cycles of infancy I stayed with my grandmother something I didn’t not find out until I was an adult. My mother expressed to me that she wasn’t able to care for me at the time because I was too small for her to feel comfortable caring for me at the time. When hearing this it did take me by surprise and hurt me a little only because I felt like she could have said something sooner than when it came out to me. I felt like there was a little detachment there because my mother wasn’t caring for me the first couple months I was born and/or when I was released from the hospital. Hotelling (2004) states not all parenting styles are alike. What individuals do as parents depends somewhat on how they were raised as a child, what they observed in other families, and what they have been taught. Two very different styles have emerged: Attachment Parenting and Baby wise. Parenting Ones own developed style of parenting will probably fall somewhere between the two. Attachment Parenting is a highly respected approach that promotes securely attached children. The problems with Baby wise Parenting, however, have been known to include detachment, behavioral disorders, dehydration, failure to thrive, irritability, infant anorexia, and even infant death (Hotelling, 2004).Parenting is never easy. Perspective parents are encouraged to seek out resources for support and information, starting now, to help ease the way. One thing is for sure: No recipe for parenting will guarantee a good nights sleep every night or perfect children (Hotelling, 2004). As stated in the article Bowlby (1982) defined attachment as a child being â€Å"strongly disposed to seek proximity to and contact with a specific figure and to do so in certain situation, notably when he is frightened, tired or ill†. Typically, preferred attachment emerges clearly in the latter  part of the 1st year of life, as evidenced by the appearance of separation protest and stranger wariness. Under usual conditions, preferred attachment unfolds gradually over the 1st year of life (Zeanah and Fox, 2004). Preferred attachments to caregivers may develop at any time after infants reach a cognitive age of 7 to 9 months, provided that the new caregivers have sufficient involvement with the child. Thus, young children adop ted out of foster care or institutions readily form attachments to their new caregivers (Zeanah and Fox, 2004). Zeanah and Fox (2004) states there are four patterns of attachment, secure, avoidant, resistant, and disorganized have described individual differences in the organization of an infant’s attachment behaviors with respect to an attachment figure in this procedure. RAD was first introduced into the diagnostic nosologies just over 20 years ago, with the publication of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (3rd ed. [DSM-III], American Psychiatric Association, 1980).The criteria were substantially revised in DSM-I. The disorder is defined by aberrant social behavior that appears in early childhood and is evident cross-contextually. Two patterns have been described, an emotionally withdrawn –inhibited pattern and an indiscriminately social –disinhibited pattern, each of which have been observed in children raised in institutions and in maltreated children (Zeanah and Fox, 2004). Growing into an adult after finding out that I wasn’t raised by my mother the first few months I felt some emotional distress, I felt from looking back on my childhood that there were some favoritism between me and my other brother and sisters. Feldman (2014) states developmentalists believe a true emotion has three components: a biological arousal component (such as increased breathing rate or heartbroken), a cognitive component (awareness of feeling anger or fear), and a behavioral component (displaying that one feels unhappy by crying, for example). Growing up my father was in my life after I came home from my grandmothers, but only for short amount of time. My father was abusive to my mother which caused for him to break up and get a divorce. After the divorce we didn’t really see our father that because of how abusive he could be and once he moved out he moved back to his hometown of New York, NY. We spoke occasionally on the phone and he even visited from time to time but as time went on the calling and the visiting stopped. It was very difficult to adjust to him not being there and not hearing from him the older me and my  brother and sisters got. Meyer (2010) discuss the influence of children on women’s decisions to seek help when experiencing intimate partner violence. Intimate partner violence (IPV) has a detrimental effect on the wellbeing of victims and their children. Meyer (2010) states the role (unborn) children has been examined together with other demographic and situational factors to reveal their influence on victims’ help-seeking decision. The two items were used to measure the role of children, including victims’ pregnancy at the time of the abuse and children residing with the victim and witnessing the abuse. While the presence of unborn children (i.e., pregnancy) had no effect on victims’ help-seeking decisions, children witnessing the abuse emerged as the strongest predictor of general and more formalized help – seeking decisions. In conclusion, whil e the involvement of unborn children had no effect on victims help-seeking decisions, children who resided with the victim and directly witnessed the abuse had the largest effect on all examined help-seeking decisions. Seeing my mother abused at a child does take a piece of you and the reality if you will be yourself in the same situation when you get older to experience being an relationship yourself, also the fact of dealing with the fact that your father has been in and out of your life does cause emotional and physical damage. You can grow up with bitterness in your heart not willing to love or open yourself to feelings and emotions that will help you bond with others or make it hard for you to fall in love. As a child you learn how too really love from your parents but how to love another of the opposite sex you feel that emotion from your father as far relationships with other men. Wilcox (2012) argues is parent abuse a form of domestic violence, in this situation I would say there are many similarities between domestic violence and parent abuse since both entail a constellation of abusive behaviors embedded in the family relationship. In both cases, the majority of victims/survivors are fema les /mothers. Both involve a continuing process of social harm requiring day to day management. As with domestic violence, parent abuse involves everyday stresses which shape a parent’s ability to ‘parent effectively ‘. There are similarities but I would go as far to say same it’s a form of domestic violence because on the other hand had stated in the article, the parent has an ongoing responsibility to parent, versus making the option of ending or leaving the relationship inappropriate. If you have ever experienced love  from your father how do you know how to love another man if your own father didn’t show you how a man is to love you? The role of the father in child development; parents don’t think having the father around while pregnant can affect the unborn child. As stated in this article studies investigating the role of the father in child development have focused on a range of different aspects of fathers and the father – child relationship, such as paternal emotional well- being, father – child attachment, and the quality of father – child interactive. The study have shown that fathers’ active and regular engagement with their children has a positive effect on children’s social, behavioral, psychological, and cognitive development later in life. In conclusion this study was meant as an exploratory and preliminary investigation of fathers; experience during pregnancy Vreeswijk,M.J.M.,C., Maas,B.M.A.,J., Rijk,H.A.M.,C., Bakel ,V.J.A. H., (2013). Over the years as growing into an adult it has really been a struggle for me to maintain a healthy relationship with the opposite sex, because I am always questioning is this person who they say they are? Will they give up and leave and be abusive as my father was? Will I ever feel real love that I am wanting so badly to experience? As a young adult it was difficult to maintain a healthy longevity relationship or friendship, I would put more into the relationships and friendships and they would still end with my feeling being hurt because I was being so nice to gain and keep friends not knowing that it goes both ways it cannot be no one way street, when being in a relationship or friendship. I think this took me until I was almost 30 years of age to know that not everyone will treat you how you treat them. I was so naà ¯ve to think that everyone will treat you the way you treat them but a lot of people didn’t grow up that way. Every house hold is different and everyone is bor n into different lifestyles and parenting styles which causes them to react or act on what they seen as children growing up. Being an adult it is very challenging you see how your parents held the family together and what surfaces one has to take in order to take care of an family there are so many ups and downs you will go through when coming into adult hood. For me I was so excited being able to do things on my own without my parents but then reality really hit when I couldn’t lean on my parents anymore for things because they too was adjusting to being on their own again without caring for their children anymore. Today, at 32 it is  still a struggle as I am still growing into the women I was set out to be no one is perfect and it takes years for one to become fully mature and I know I will reach my potential success with growth, time, patience and having a healthy relationship with God. Some of the beliefs and I developed while growing up were in the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church is the Church that Jesus Christ established. Thus the Church subsists in the Catholic Church. However, member s of other Christian churches and denominations are also in communion with the Catholic Church by virtue of their sacraments. The accepted Churches possess fully valid sacraments, and are true particular Churches, whereas Christians are in communion with the Catholic Church on account of their baptism; still, this communion is impaired. The Church in one, because it is unified in Christ across regions. The Church is Holy on account of the grace of Christ given to it and the holy sacraments it provides. The Catholic Church contains the fullness of the Deposit of Faith, thus is it truly according to the whole and universal? Finally, the Church is Apostolic because its Teachings and power come from the Apostles themselves. Some of the beliefs I developed in the terms of right and wrong behavior were divorce, pre-marital sex, and same-sex relationships having a relationship with Christ always putting Christ and family first. The new Christian is capable of being a doer of the Word, enabled by the Spirit; then change in the problem areas can occur. I gather information to understand the problem and the underlying issues. We build a Christ-centered relationship of care and trust. 2 Timothy 3:16-17 (NIV) states encouragement from God’s Word, outlining the certainty of being able to be equipped and strengthened to change with God’s help. â€Å"Spiritual development is likely a wellspring for the best of human life (e.g., generosity, unit, sacrifice, altruism, social justice) as well as for our darkest side (e.g., genocide, terrorism, slavery). Using social science to examine this potent force in society and individual lives of young people has been neglected for too long† (p. 210). The Handbook of Spiritual Development in Childhood and Adolescence seeks to ensure that this oversight does not persist. Spiritual development may be at a â€Å"tipping point† for becoming a major theme in child and adolescent development. A growing number of scholars in various disciplines have invested themselves in this field. The public imagination appears to be ready in numerous cultures, traditions,  and contexts, all of which are struggling with social changes that threaten to undermine the spiritual lives of young people. Benson, P. L., Roehlkepartain, E. C., King, P.E., Wagener, L.M (2005). References Meyer, S., (2010) Seeking Help to protect the Children? : The Influence of Children on Women’s Decisions to Seek Help When Experiencing Intimate Partner Violence. J Fam Viol 25:713-725, Springer Science +Business Media, LLC. Michelle, R.A., (2013) The effects of maternal nutrition on fetal psychological development. International Journal of Childbirth Education.28.3:p90. Effects on Children’s Health and Development. Psychological Medicine, Cambridge University, 40,335-334. Rupert, L. (2006) How women can carry their unborn babies to term – The Prevention of Premature Birth Through Psychosomatic Methods. Journal of Prenatal Psychology Health; 20, 4; ProQuest Central pg.293. Hotelling, A. B. (2004). Styles of Parenting, J Perinat Educ. 2004 Winter; 13(1): 42–44. Feldman, R. (2011). Development across the life span (6th ed.) Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Zeanah, H., C, Fox, A., N (2004). Temperament and Attachment Disorders. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, Vol.33, No.1, 32-41. Bowlby, J. (1982). Attachment and loss; Vol. Attachment. New York: Basic Book. Benson, P. L., Roehlkepartain, E. C., King, P.E., Wagener, L.M (2005). Spiritual development in childhood and adolescence: Moving the Scientific Mainstream. Benson, P. L., Roehlkepartain, E. C., King, P.E., Wagener, L.M (2005). The Handbook of Spiritual Development in Childhood and Adolescences. Vreeswijk,M.J.M.,C., Maas,B.M.A.,J., Rijk,H.A.M.,C., Bakel ,V.J.A. H., (2013) Fathers’ Experiences During Pregnancy: Paternal Prenatal Attachment and Representations of the Fetus. Psychology of Men Masculinity.

Curbing Child Labour In African Countries Young People Essay

Curbing Child Labour In African Countries Young People Essay 1.0 Definition of Child Labour The International Labor Organization (ILO, 2004) defined child labour as work that deprives children of their childhood, their potential and their dignity, and that is harmful to physical and mental development. It refers to work that deprives children of their childhood, their potential and their dignity, and that is harmful to their physical and mental development. Also, child labour refers to any working activity that is physically, mentally, socially or morally harmful and dangerous to children, with interference in their education by depriving them of the chance to attend school, prematurely obliging them to leave school, or requiring them to combine schooling with extremely long and heavy work. 2.0 The Negative Effect of Child Labour on Human Capital Accumulation and Economic Development One of the most significant problems in developing countries especially in Africa is the unpleasant incident of child labour. Children do labour to earn money by sacrificing their health, their education, and their normal development to maturity. The child labour exists prevalently in most countries in Africa. It has been a deep-rooted evil phenomenon, which delay the development of human capital accumulation and economic growth. Most African countries are lying on a stagnation situation or downward spiral in which poor performance in human development has been liable to poor economic growth and poverty, which consecutively discouraged human development achievements. Nowadays, while most of developed countries are enjoying wealth and prosperity, some of developing nations and most third world countries in Africa are struggling themselves to combat the problem of child labour. The prevalence of child labour causes the children to occupy their lifetime with working, leaving school and education behind. The main aim for these children to work would be the wages gain from working in order to support household income. However, because of the time in a day is limited to 24 hours, there will be high probability for a working child to forgo schooling if they want to concentrate working to help their parents income. As working children become an adult without a sound education, their future generation soon is likely to do the same duty as they were child ago. As a result, there will be a lack of human capital improvement in one country even after generations, and thus in long-term will bring about stagnant economic development. 3.0 Child Labour in African Countries The ILO is an international organisation charged to count with child labor. The ILO reported in 2004 that 218 million children engaged in economic activity globally, excluding child domestic labour (UNICEF, 2006). Within this number, 126 million or one in every six children aged 5-17 years were trapped in hazardous work. The ILO estimated that children represent 40-50 percent of all victims of forced labour, or 5.7 million children were caught in bonded and forced labour. Available data suggested that more boys than girls were economically active, but girls who are engaged in household chores and sibling childcare not be accounted for in these statistics (ILO, 2002). Children who were working in household of a third party or employer are particularly at risk to abuse and exploitation. The ILO estimates that more girls below age 16 were in domestic (household) service than in any other category child labour. African continent has the highest percentage of economically active children. The ILO study showed that 41 percent of children in Africa continent are devoting to labour work (ILO, 2003). The sectors where child labour is most employed are agriculture, fishing, hunting, and forestry. More than 30 percent of African children aged between 10 and 14 are working in agriculture sector. In most countries which are producing raw materials, children are used to work on agriculture estates of cocoa, coffee, and cotton. Also in Africa, the incident of child labour varies among areas in the continent. Child labour occupies nearly most of the teenagers population in the countries of central Africa. Meanwhile it is nearly absolutely lacking in South Africa, and the similar situation occurs in the nations of northern Africa. As stated by the ILO in 2003, there are 400,000 child labourers in Rwanda. Within this number, there are 120,000 are considered to be engaged in the worst forms of child labour, while a number of 60,000 identified as child domestic workers. In Rwanda, children are also involved in prostitution in several large cities. The report showed that 94 percent of these child prostitutes lived in extreme poverty stricken, 40 percent had missing both of their parents, and 41 percent had never enroll themselves in schooling. In Zambia, according to the Zambian, there are a number of 595,000 child labourers in the country. Of these, 58 percent are below age 15, thus, disallowed for any kind of employment as controlled by the Employment of Young Persons Act. According to the ILO in 2003, as much as 1.9 million children in Kenya, with age ranges between 5 and 17, are child labourers. Only 3.2 percent of this population has accomplished a secondary level (school) of education, and 12.7 percent had never been to school. In Kenya, during the peak coffee picking season, it was approximated that up to 30 percent of the coffee pickers are under age 15. In Tanzania, it has been estimated that 4,600 children working in small-scale mining. It is common to find children as young as eight digging thirty-meter underground in mines for at least eight hours per day. It is usually been carried out without proper light and ventilation, and child workers are exposed to risk of injury or death underground. Furthermore, in Zimbabwe, it was approximated that 5 million children with ages between 5 and 17 are being compelled to labour work. While, a survey conducted on child labourers in small-scale mines in Madagascar found that 58 percent that population were aged 12 or under. In addition, only a third had being exposed to learn skills, and half were belonged to families that trapped in poverty stricken with bad living conditions. Moreover in Africa, a number of 120,000 children below the age of 18 have been forced into military labors such as child soldiers, or military messengers, cooks, porters, or sex slaves. An amount ranged 10,000-15,000 children from Mali are working on plantations in CÃ ´te dIvoire. Most of them are victims of child trafficking. It is estimated that 50,000 children are working as household servant in Morocco. In West Africa, an estimated 35,000 children are in commercial sexual exploitation. The Sub-Saharan Africa is the geographical area of the world with the highest rate of child labour. As stated by the ILO report, the high populations growth rate in Sub-Saharan Africa corresponds with the increasing of poverty in the region (ILO, 2004). In addition, the HIV/Aids outspread hinders all effort against child labour although the report does show clear evident of improvement in gross school enrolments, where the primary school registrations in the area have raised by 38 percent between 1990 and 2000. The Human Rights Watch (HRW) reported that in 2002, regarding child trafficking in Togo, asserted that the governments of western African countries had done fragile enforcement to curb the prevalent trafficking of child labour (Human Rights Watch, 2003). As reported by HRW, the local crisis of children trafficking was brought about by HIV/Aids. A large number of these children are orphans, compelled to work for survival after the death of their HIV- positive parents. The HRW asserted that children are forced into labour work in several countries in western Africa. The traffickers attract the children by promising them with professional training as well as sponsored schooling. The vast majority of these children were trafficked by neighbouring countries, such as Burkina Faso and Mali. The incidence of child labour trafficking occurs in many paths, as the government didnt execute strict enforcement to ban it. Girls were sold to work in the night markets, and during the day as baby sitt ers, and victims are generally subjected to physical violence and psychological abuse. The countries of destination of child trafficking in general have power over economies of western Africa. The report by Institute of Tropical Agriculture in 2002 showed that 70 percent of world cocoa production made in western Africa (Boas, M. Huser, A., 2006). From this statistics, 43 percent world cocoa production supplied by Cote dIvoire, 15 percent in Ghana, 7 percent in Nigeria, 4 percent in Cameroon, and the remains 1 percent in other regions in western Africa. In these supplier countries, the ripe cocoa is collected from plantation and processed by children. Children aged between 5 and 15, all came from poor background, were lured by the traffickers to leave their countries, even with forged labour contracts, were sold to the owners of agricultural estates. Often the children realised of their condition only afterwards, when they are forced into sheds and locked up inside. Children who ran away from the plantations disclosed of how they were victimised, exploited and tortured , and never received any pay. 4.0 Major Determinant of Child Labor Child labour is an issue in worldwide concern, especially in least developed countries in Africa, with many governments officially declares laws that protect children from labour work. There is no single root of child labour in Africa, and the important factors that cause children to become labourers are wide-ranging. Indeed, the particular conditions will differ depending to the different background between children. In spite of this, the determinants of child labour may be categorised into two groups based on 1) demand determinants or market mechanism, and 2) supply determinants. This classification is based on the works by Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (Edmonds, E. V., 2003; Bhalotra, S., 2003). Demand side determinants are the factors which encourage an employer to employ children into labour work. While, supply side determinants are the factors which induce the parents or head of the households to make a decision about the exploitation of children s time into labour work. Demand side determinants of child labour are the composition of labour market, the current production technology, the weak law-making or weak implementation of legislation, childrens beneficial features for a specific work, small amount paid to children with extra working hours, and little bargaining power of children. In contrast, the supply side determinants of child labour origin from the household background. These include a range of socio-economic variables such as poverty, lack of educational and public facilities, unemployment of adults, and population pressure. These variables are associated with the decision making of the household to send the children to work. 5.0 Curbing the Child Labour in Africa: A Few Recommendations on Development Policy for Human Capital Improvement Most countries in Africa prohibited the employ of children in economic activities, especially the worst form of child labour. This was due to its bad consequences of the children in their present and future time. However, most of law enforcement failed to curb child labour. Labour intensive industries and agricultural sectors will always welcome a huge demand for cheap labour, in other word, child workers. Moreover, parents are willingly to send their children working to increase household income in order to survive in poverty stricken. Drawing upon the historical experience of several countries, both economic factors and legal restrictions played a role in reducing child labour, although legislation appears to have been less significant. I suggested that banning child labour through law enforcement and legislation is an inappropriate action. This is because this action will reduce the welfare of people. The primary purpose of working is to earn money, to earn living. Parents submitt ed their children to labour work to help families income, to maintain their life survival. After studying the conditions child labour in several African countries, I would like to suggest some development policies that can be implemented by their governments in order to curb child labour, then improving the welfare of children in order to develop high human capital in Africa in the future. Those recommended policies are: 5.1 Reducing Household Poverty The first and major cause of child labour is poverty. Absolute poverty as a synonym for extreme poverty is the lack of enough resources (such as financial resources) to ensure of obtaining basic life necessities. The poverty is concerned with the income level of the household. A strong negative relationship exists between child labour and total income of a household. The additional level of income will reduce the probability of a child to work. Most of the incident of child labour as a parental decision, where parents will only send their children to work when compelled to do so by poverty stricken. Therefore, when parents income surpasses some threshold, parents tend to withdraw the children out of labour market (Basu, K. Van, P. H., 1998). A historical analysis has shown that the decline of child labour was highly associated with the rise of married womens participation in the labour force (Cunningham, H., 2000). This is because the rise of married womens participation in the labo ur force had caused the childrens contribution (income) to the economy of the working class family become less significant. I would like to suggest for governments to implement the minimum wage legislation on adults. The increase in adults wage will decrease the population of child in labour market since fewer children in a family will have to work. The increase in income by implementing the minimum wage legislation will reduce the frequency of child labour. Therefore, the implementation of minimum wage laws policy in African countries is an appropriate action in checking the stagnation of child labour. I would like to recommend for the government to increase employment opportunities for women. Government ought to stimulate sectors of economies that highly associated with women, such as laundry, cleaning, cooking, and sewing. Poor families must also be allowed to have loan from financial institution, so that they will have opportunities to start their own businesses and economic activities. This will be an embarkment of a large scale poverty alleviation program and target income support, in purpose to keep children away from work market and attending schools. 5.2 Providing Better Quality of Education for Children Evidence from communities areas in Ghana showed that the incidence of high childrens employment and the low school enrolment is caused by the bad quality of education (Ray, R., 2002). This has led to the lack of importance of education for children as viewed by most parents. The likelihood of full-time school attending could be increased by reducing the cost of schooling. The expansion of school allocation by government, which reduces the opportunity-cost of schooling, would decrease the number of working children, but attending school (Cigno, A., Rosati, F. C. Tzannatos, Z., 2002). I would like to advise for the government that the education policies should aim to improve the quality of schooling, and expansion in schooling subsidy must prove impressive in order to encourage parents keeping their children in schools rather than submitting them employed. Government policies should center on improving school infrastructure facilities and quality of schooling especially in rural areas. The quality of education will determine the parents awareness concerning the education route as a way to advance life status. The low quality of education will dispute the need of schooling for their children if to have a promising future with a stable and well-paid job. This kind of judgment is normally found among people communities with low income level because their occupations are commonly requiring no formal education attainment, but basic skills as a cheap labour. I would like to put forward for the reduction of costs of schooling. This is purposely to reduce opportunity cost of schooling, in term of payment (salary) obtained from working children. Scholarships for schooling students should not for only school tuition fees, but must cover other benefits, such as school accessories like school uniforms and free meals in order to make education more attractive. The school enrolment, especially primary school enrolment is most essential for children to ensure of obtaining basic and necessary education before jumping into the higher stages of education. Students who are obliged to attend a longer years of education by compulsory education laws will make higher wages in their future as compared to others with less years of education. Therefore, public investment in improving school infrastructure will give rise to a significant beneficial effect to born better educated labour force in the future with higher productivity to the society. 5.3 Controlling the Family Size through Policies Among fifteen countries with highest fertility rate in the world, the fourteen of them are belonged to African countries (United Nations, 2007). The high fertility and birth rate each year had caused to the large family size in Africa. And, the larger the number of children, so then the larger the total cost of living and rearing children. The big number of siblings had forced the elder siblings to working, instead of attending school. According to a study, this additional work increases with the number of younger siblings and the spacing between siblings. Because family sizes raise, the additional work for elder siblings will significantly be increased to help additional households income (Edmonds, E. V., 2006). I would like to advocate for the government of those African countries to implement the one or two-child policy in their countries. This is purposely to decrease fertility rate in those countries. This policy can be adopted from the China one-child policy introduced in 1978. It was created by the Chinese government to alleviate social, economic, and environmental problems in China. After the introduction of the one-child policy, the fertility rate in China fell from over three births per woman in 1980 to approximately 1.8 births in 2008. In my point of view, the controlling of family size will reduce the total cost of rearing many children in a family. This will increase disposable income in a family, in which this income can be saved for future use and to finance good quality education for children. The government must promise a direct benefit for the only first one or two children in the family, such as free schooling or educational subsidies. This family size control may promise a better quality of children with high human capital, even with smaller numbers, rather than having a large number of children but with low human capital. This not only improve the welfare of each children, but also give to human capital improvement in Africa, and thus in long-term will bring about healthier economic development. 5.4 Introducing Modern Labour-Saving Technologies into Economic Sectors The major characteristic of labour markets in most developing countries is a high proportion of employment of unskilled labour force in the informal sectors. This trait has led to a creation of large labour intensive market space with low-level of technology that encourages the demand for children to become labour force (Edmonds, E. V, 2003; Dinopoulos, E. Zhao, L., 2007). Thus, the level of technology in an economy will determine both the supply and demand for child labour. I would like to suggest that the introduction and adoption of modern labour-saving technologies as a tool to inhibit child labour. At a distance from raising agricultural productivity, the adoption of modern labour-saving technologies could free children from repetitive working duties in agriculture and thus increase their chances of attending school. Therefore, policies and programmes that promote the adoption of land and modern labour-saving technologies should be listed as policy tools to curb child labour in the African countries. The introduction of new technologies such as mechanization or automation in industries, and the use of improved strains and fertilizers in agricultural sector will reduce the demand for unskilled child labour. A study had also found that the returns to education will also increase because people understand the need for higher education attainment to fulfill the high demand for high-skilled labour. (Cigno, A., Rosati, F. C. Tzannatos, Z., 2002). Thus, t his will discourage the supply of child labour. This low motivation of supplying child labour and low interest to employ unskilled labour will further the declining of children exploitation into economic activities. In my opinion, from the technological perspective, it should be noticed that childrens participation are unnecessary in the process of industrialisation because child workers keep low human capital stock. In addition to the least developed African countries, in most industries where children work, there are existing technologies that being utilised in developed countries. Thus, the employment of these modern technologies by African countries would replace tasks performed by child labour, and finally reduce child employment in productive economic activities. I would also like to advise the African countries to welcome globalisation in their economic policies. The accepting of globalisation will improve capital market through foreign direct investment (FDI), and will generate technological and knowledge spillover. This will help introducing new modern labour-saving technologies as a tool to improve economic sectors, and at the same time will inhibit child labour. This is according to a study which had found that the forces of globalisation can curb the phenomenon of child labour through the trade policies that beneficial for modern sector, and the increase in FDI in modern sector that will reduce the demand of child labour without deteriorating the wage-income distribution. (Dinopoulos, E. Zhao, L., 2007).

Workplace Bullying Mobbing

Workplace Bullying Mobbing Workplace bullying is the tendency of individuals or groups to use aggressive or unreasonable behavior to achieve their ends and it is the repeated mistreatment of one employee targeted by one or more employees with a malicious mix of humiliation, intimidation and sabotage of performance. Unlike the more physical form of schoolyard bullying, workplace bullies often operate within the established rules and policies of their organization and their society. Workplace bullying is also referred to as mobbing, although mobbing can also mean any bullying by more than one person, psychological terror or aggression, hostile behaviour at work, work place trauma, emotional violence! In practice means  »ganging up « by co-workers, subordinates or superiors, to force someone out of the workplace through rumor, innuendo, intimidation, humiliation, discrediting, and isolation. Mobbing is typically found in work environments that have poorly organized production and working methods and incapable or inattentive management. A recent reliable study estimates that approximately 1 in 6 workers has directly experienced destructive bullying. Half of all bullies (58%) are women. Half of all bullying is woman-on-woman. Women comprise 80% of targets. The vast majority of bullies (71%) are bosses. Why bullies bully can be reduced to 3 factors. This are competitive schemes, peoples who live to manipulate others to accomplish their own goals and when employers reward the aggression with promotions and rewards. Research indicates that adults who bully have personalities that are authoritarian, combined with a strong need to control or dominate. A person can knew when is bullied because of experinces from work and outside of work (always talking about work). There are four types of bullies. Chronic bullies (tries to dominate people in nearly every encounterat work and away from work), opportunist bullies (he/she knows that beating up other people will lead to winning), accidental bullies (is truly unaware of the effect of her actions on other people) and substance abusing bullies (very dangerous and threatening because she may not be in control of her decisions at all). We can protect ourselves of bullying! There is no direct law abou bullying (only in Sweden, Norvay and Finland) but it should be in the employers interest to establish a policy in preventing conflicts from escalating into dangerous states. As well as practical measures a bullying target can take, there is some legal protection or redress against some types of behaviour, although a suffering employee must look to different parts of related employment law. Although you should first realized that this is not your foult that you are bullied, to informed a manager about that, consider changing your job, to tell a bully that this kind of behaviour is not exceptable, The most problematic and serious mobbing or bullying we can find in army workplace! The U.K. army defined bullying as: â€Å"the use of physical strength or the abuse of authority to intimidate or victimize others, or to give unlawful punishments! Every year we can hear about skandals in armies all over the World. In Russian army is still a lot of violence although there was establiseh military police like in other countries. Some argue that this behaviour should be allowed because the soldiering is different from other occupations. Soldiers expected to risk their lives should, according to them, develop strength of body and spirit to accept bullying.

Summary of Vietnam War :: Vietnam War Essays

Summary of Vietnam War Ngo Vinh Long   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In this reading, Long discusses the history of Vietnamese resistance to colonial and oppressive forces. Long states that American historians and statesman claim that other factors contributed to the disastrous conclusion of the Vietnam war, but that the real truth is that the American’s were not prepared to meet such a formidable foe. The Vietnamese had been resisting the Chinese for over 1,000 years and had held on; when the French arrived the same policy of resistance was practiced. Ultimately, due to the oppressive nature of the French and WWII, the French were ousted and a new communist government under Ho Chi Minh was established. Having just been under an oppressive force, and being very knowledgeable about how to deal with oppression, the American’s were caught by surprise. Ho Chi Minh   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the first set of readings, Ho Chi Minh calls upon Western powers to honor the principles of freedom they so ‘righteously’ proclaim. Speaking specifically to the French, Ho Chi Minh proclaims that the right of the Vietnamese people to be sovereign is inherent in the ideology of French ideology and he calls on them to follow through.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the second selection of reading, Ho Chi Minh recounts his eventual conversion to Marxist/Leninist ideals. He tells of his participation and final acceptance of communist ideals.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the final selection of reading Ho Chi Minh calls upon all the people of Vietnam to join in the fight for full independence. In this letter Minh appeals to heroes of the past who have resisted oppression and relates these heroes to the present struggle. Johnson   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In this selection of reading President Johnson is defending his Vietnam policy. This address by Johnson lays out many arguments for why the war in Vietnam is necessary; they are as follows: (a) the self-determination of nations; (b) aggressive forces; (c) communism as a menace to the world; (d) idea that everything operates like dominoes; (e) avoiding another Munich; (f) responsibility of the American people; (g) a â€Å"new deal† for third-world countries; (h) a better tomorrow for the world Scheer   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In this article Scheer explains why the US got involved in Vietnam. Three primary reasons were the imminent collapse of the French government, the success of the Viet Minh, and the instability of the puppet Diem regime. Duncan   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In this narrative, Duncan explains through various stories why he believes the war in Vietnam simply propaganda; he concludes his narrative by saying that it took him 10 years in the military to figure out that the government was feeding him lies.

Albert Einstein :: essays research papers

Albert Einstein   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Einstein was a German/American physicist who contributed more to the 20th century vision of physical reality than any other scientist. Einstein's theory of RELATIVITY seemed to a lot of people to be pure human thought, as did his other theories. LIFE Albert Einstein was born in Ulm, Germany, on March 14, 1879. Einstein's parents were nonobservant Jews. They moved to Munich from Ulm when Einstein was an infant. The family business was to manufacture electrical equipment. When the business failed in 1894, the family move to Milan, Italy. He decided to officially give up his German citizenship. With in a year, still not having completed secondary school, he failed and examination that allow him to follow studies that would lead to a diploma in electrical engineering at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (the Zurich Polytechnic). He spent the following year in Aarau where there were excellent teachers and an excellent physics facility. In 1896 he returned to the Zurich Polytechnic, there he graduated in 1900 as a secondary school teacher of math and physics. Two years later, he acquired a post at the Swiss patent office in Bern. While he was employed there from 1902 to 1909, he completed an extraordinary range of publications in theoretical physics. Most parts of there were written in his spare time. In 1905 he submitted one of his many scientific papers to the University of Zurich to obtain a Ph.D. degree. In 1908 he sent another scientific paper to the University of Bern and became a lecturer there. In 1914 Einstein returned to Germany but did not reapply for citizenship. He was one of only handful of German professors who was opposed the use of force and did not support Germany's war aims. After the war, the allies wanted the removal of German scientist from international meetings, but Einstein was a Jew and traveling with a Swiss passport, he remained an acceptable German delegate. Albert Einstein's political views as a pacifist and a Zionist placed him against conservatives in Germany, who labeled him a traitor and a defeatist. In Germany there was a rise of fascism, so he moved to the united states in 1933 and abandoned his pacifism. He unwillingly agreed that the new danger (the Germans) had to be brought down by force of arms. In 1939 he sent a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt that urged America to continue to develop an ATOMIC BOMB before the Germans did. This letter was one of many exchanges the White House and Einstein had. This contributed to Roosevelt's decision to fund what became the MANHATAN PROJECT.

Krishna :: Religion Religious Hinduism Essays

Krishna Krishna, revered as a glorious manifestation of the Supreme (Vishnu). He is often picture as drawing humans to the Divine by the power of love, symbolized by the lure of his flute. (Living Religions, 14th edit; p. 93) The textbook, The Humanities by Witt, Brown, Dunbar, Tirro and Witt, states that Krishna is the ninth and most recognizable incarnation of Vishnu. People of compare the relationship between Vishnu and Krishna to the Christian belief of God and Jesus. In the eighteenth book of the Mahabharata, The Bhagavad-Gita (â€Å"Song of the Supreme Exalted One†), Krishna appears as the charioteer of Arjuna. (Living Religions, 14th edit; p. 93) In the Bhagavad-Gita, Arjuna is going to fight in a battle that places him in the position of fighting his own people. Arjuna then turns to Krishna for guidance. In the Bhagavad-Gita Krishna is a wise teacher, as well as Arjuna charioteer. In R. Zaehner translation of the Bhagavad-Gita, Krishna in response to Arjuna plight says: â€Å"Never was there a time when I was not, nor you, nor yet these princes, nor will there ever be a time when we shall cease to be – all of us hereafter. Just as in this body the embodied [self] must pass through childhood, youth, and old age, so too [at death] will it assume another body: in this a thoughtful man is not perplexed. But contacts with the objects of sense give rise to heat and cold, pleasure and pain: they come and go, impermanent. Put up with them, Arjuna†¦.† Arjuna is told to withdraw his attention from the impetuous demands of senses, ignoring all feelings of attraction or aversion. This will give him a steady, peaceful mind. He is instructed to offer devotional service and to perform the prescribed Vedic sacrifices, but for the sake of discipline, duty, and example alone rather than reward. Krishna says those who do everything for love of the Supreme transcend the notion of duty. Everything they do is offered to the Supreme. Thus they feel peace, freedom from earthly entanglements, and unassailable happiness. This yogic science of transcend the â€Å"lower self† by the â€Å"higher self† is so ancient that Krishna says it was originally given to the sun god and, through his agents, to humans.

Main Causes of the US Automobile Industry Crisis Essay

Recent happenings in the US automobile industry point to an industry that is steeped in a crisis of monumental proportions, one that it has never had the misfortune of staring at since the advent of the automobile as we know it today. Sales at the Big Three motor companies (Ford, GM, and Chrysler) have touched historic lows, not only pushing industry profitability levels down with them, but also triggering off a rare spectacle characterised by all the largest American carmakers bleeding in red ink. Writing for one of the premier automotive media, Krebbs and Visnic (2009) adduce data fresh from the oven that point to as much. According to Krebbs and Visnic (2009), the American industry posted the lowest levels of sales in sixteen years in the year just past. While GM witnessed a drop in sales of 23%, Ford saw its sales revenues shrink by a massive 20%, and Chrysler posted sales that were 30% lower than the previous year. Other automakers in the country such as Hyundai, Toyota, and Nissan did not fare any better. On average, the industry shed off some 3 million units in lost sales, which translates into a contraction of 18%. With such massive declines in sales, the Big Three have become deeply steeped in debt, and are staring bankruptcy right in the face in spite of the massive bailout packages tailored for the industry by the Obama administration. As a matter of fact, GM (which is the largest of the Big Three) and Chrysler have already filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection. As the Wall Street Journal (2009, p.A1) points out, GM went under in June under a massive debt of $172 billion (against assets of only $82 billion) in what has been described as the second largest industrial bankruptcy filing in the US. After 84 years, the icon of American industry had its name struck off the Dow Jones, hot in the heels of Chrysler which had filed for bankruptcy just months earlier. It is not just dwindling sales and profitability that have afflicted the three largest American carmakers, they have also been steadily losing market shares and particularly to their more fleet-footed Asian rivals who include Toyota, Nissan Honda, and Hyundai. For example, GM, Chrysler and Ford had market shares of 23.8%, 12.9% and 15.5% respectively in 2007, which fell to 22.6%, 11% and 15.1% respectively in 2008. In contrast, the market shares of Honda, Nissan and Toyota increased from 9.7%, 6.6% and 16.3% respectively to 10.8%, 7.2% and 16.8% respectively over the same period. This is an indication that the US carmakers are losing out to other foreign carmakers (Krebbs and Visnic, 2009). Various factors have been cited as being behind the poor performance of the US automobile industry, but there are three main reasons that stand out. These include the meltdown in the US economy that was largely triggered off by the sub prime mortgage crisis, the failure by American carmakers to respond adaptively to the dictates of the external environment, and a poor business model characterized by factors such as huge legacy costs. Economic meltdown: One of the major causes of the declining fortunes of the US auto industry is the meltdown of the US economy which is mainly attributed to the sub prime mortgage crisis. The sub prime mortgage crisis occurred when banks and other financial institutions made out loans for the purchase of homes to a segment of the market that is considered risky due to its poor credit history and low ability to repay given their low income levels (this segment of the market is what is referred to as the sub prime segment). These loans were made out at the height of the boom in the real estate industry with expectations being that the boom in the industry would continue and that the buyers of the homes given the mortgages would be able to refinance their homes and pay back the loans. With the unexpected and sudden burst of the real estate bubble however, the sub prime borrowers were unable to refinance their homes due to plummeting values of real estate, leading to huge defaults that triggered off massive foreclosures never before witnessed in US history (Zeese, 2008; Rasmus, 2008). This caused banks and financial institutions to write off billions of dollars in bad debts, leading to a huge liquidity crisis and credit crunch that hit the economy and caused the current recessionary conditions being witnessed in the US and in much of the world. It also brought about a sharp and dramatic spike in unemployment rates which have affected demand for cars. The economic crisis has had the effect of drying up credit, which has made many potential car buyers unable to access car loans, a factor that has in turn triggered a massive decline in the demand for cars. Additionally, car makers have been unable to access debt finance for investment and working capital requirements, which has also impacted them negatively (Zeese, 2008; Rasmus, 2008; Borade, 2009). Failure to adapt to the external environment: Firms operate in an external environment in which its operations are affected either positively or negatively by political-legal, economic, socio-cultural, and technological forces. The role of the company therefore is to scan the external environment for opportunities or threats which these forces may present, and to implement strategies that will help the organization to either capitalize on the opportunities or avoid the threats (Saloner, Shepard, and Podolny, 2008). The troubles afflicting the US automobile stem in part on the failure of the US carmakers to assess changes in their external environment and to respond adaptively. Over much of 2008, oil prices soared at one tine time touching all-time highs of $147 per barrel. The rise in oil prices triggered a corresponding rise in gasoline prices (to a high of $4 a gallon), which pushed the commodity out of reach for many Americans, and especially those with large fuel guzzling vehicles such as trucks (e.g. GM’s hugely popular Hummer) (Krebbs and Visnic, 2009; Zeese, 2008). Concomitant with the rise in the price of oil and gasoline has been an increasing consciousness towards the need for environmental protection, which has caused the rising popularity of cars that have higher fuel efficiency. These two factors contributed a great deal in shifting consumers’ tastes and preferences away from large fuel-guzzling cars such as trucks towards smaller more fuel efficient models. Unlike Asian car makers which recognized these trends and moved towards the manufacture of small models and green vehicles, all the Big Three firms continues producing large fuel guzzling cars such as SUV’s (Zeese, 2008). The result of this is that SUV and truck sales plummeted, hitting hard the revenues and bottom lines of the American firms, as consumers shifted their purchases to the smaller models manufactured by the Asian carmakers. Krebbs and Visnic (2009) write that as a result of these trends, car sales surpassed those of trucks in 2008, the first time that has ever happened since 2000. An example of   how hard SUV and large vehicle sales were affected as a result of these trends is given by the case of GM and its Hummer brand, which Hummer, which â€Å"suffered the biggest decline of all GM’s brands with sales plummeting 51 percent — its lowest sales level since 2002† (Krebbs and Visnic, 2009, p.2). Poor business model: The third factor that has contributed to the dramatic decline of the US auto industry’s fortunes is the fact that the industry has a poor business model. The US automobile industry is unique among all car industries worldwide due to the fact that it is saddled with huge and unbearable healthcare costs which produces one of the highest cost structures that makes American made cars uncompetitive against Asian made cars, for example (Zeese, 2008). According to Zeese (2008), failure by successive US administrations to reform the country’s healthcare system has resulted in car manufacturers paying healthcare costs for their employees to the tune of billions of dollars. Zeese (2008, p.1) writes that â€Å"It would not be unfair to describe General Motors as a health insurance provider who happens to make cars. GM spends $5 billion annually on health care for 1.2 million people – only 150,000 of whom work for the company. GM, Ford and Chrysler have a combined unfunded retiree health care obligation of more than $90 billion. Health care adds $1,500 to the cost of each vehicle.† With the American carmakers saddled by such huge costs, it is little wonder that their products are uncompetitive when compared to cars made by foreign manufacturers such as Toyota (which has one of the most admired lean manufacturing systems that keeps costs very low). Conclusion: The US automobile industry is in a big crisis. Other than declining sales and profitability, the industry is losing out to foreign car makers and particularly Asian rivals such as Toyota, Honda and Nissan. This has been brought about by three main reasons, which include the meltdown in the US economy triggered off by the sub prime mortgage crisis, a poor business model adopted by the industry, and failure by the US car industry to respond adaptively to changing environmental conditions. References: Borade, G. 2009. US economic crisis: impact on automobile industry. Retrieved on 11 July 2009 from http://www.buzzle.com/articles/us-economic-crisis-impact-on-automobile-industry.html King, N and Terlep, S. 2009, June 2. â€Å"GM Collapses into Government’s Arms.† Wall Street Journal. Retrieved on 11 July 2009 from   http://online.wsj.com/article/SB124385428627671889.html